In this article
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) refers to the partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. FGM is a deeply rooted cultural practice that has been performed for centuries in various parts of Africa, the Middle East and Asia.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 200 million girls and women alive today have undergone some form of FGM, primarily in 30 countries across Africa and the Middle East. The procedure is recognised internationally as a violation of the human rights of girls and women and has severe immediate and long-term health consequences, including infection, childbirth complications and psychological trauma or Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).
FGM is categorised into four major types based on the extent and nature of the procedure. These classifications were established by the World Health Organization and describe varying degrees of cutting, removal or alteration of the female genitalia.
Here are the four main types:
- Type I Clitoridectomy – this involves the partial or total removal of the clitoris and, in rare cases, only the clitoral hood (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris).
- Type II Excision – this refers to the partial or total removal of the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without the excision of the labia majora.
- Type III Infibulation – this is the most severe form of FGM. It involves narrowing the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal, formed by cutting and repositioning the inner or outer labia, with or without the removal of the clitoris. The opening left for urination and menstruation is usually small.
- Type IV Other Harmful Procedures – this category includes all other harmful practices to the female genitalia for non-medical reasons, which do not fall under the first three categories. Examples include pricking, piercing or incising.
While the practice has been perpetuated by traditional beliefs about purity, marriageability and social status, recent years have seen successful efforts to abandon FGM in many communities. Highlighting these successful case studies is essential for understanding the strategies and factors that contribute to the abandonment of FGM, as well as offering a blueprint for other communities to follow.
Ending FGM requires deep cultural shifts and the active participation of communities. While international advocacy and legal reforms play a significant role, the most sustainable change comes from within communities that understand the social dynamics and motivations behind the practice. This case study aims to showcase successful community-led initiatives, emphasising how grassroots movements, local leadership and culturally sensitive approaches can foster the abandonment of FGM. These stories of success are vital not only to inspire other communities but also to demonstrate that change is possible, even in the most entrenched contexts.
Background of Selected Communities
The Maasai of Kenya
The Maasai, a semi-nomadic ethnic group in Kenya, have long practised FGM as a rite of passage for girls transitioning into womanhood. Traditionally, FGM was seen as a prerequisite for marriage and an essential part of Maasai identity. In some regions, the prevalence of FGM among Maasai women was as high as 90%.
The Afar of Ethiopia
The Afar people, residing in north-eastern Ethiopia, have historically practised FGM as a way to ensure girls’ chastity and prepare them for marriage. FGM was deeply embedded in their culture, with prevalence rates above 90% in some areas. This community faced additional challenges due to its remote location and limited access to education and healthcare.
The Bambara of Mali
In Mali, the Bambara ethnic group also held long-standing traditions of FGM, with the procedure often performed on girls as young as five. The practice was linked to beliefs about social purity and the readiness of girls for adulthood. In some areas of Mali, FGM prevalence exceeded 80%, reflecting a deeply ingrained cultural norm.
Strategies for Abandoning FGM
In each of the case study communities, the role of respected local leaders, whether traditional chiefs, religious figures or village elders, was critical in spearheading efforts to end FGM.
In the Maasai community, a well-known elder and activist, Kakenya Ntaiya, played a pivotal role in influencing others by publicly speaking against the practice and establishing a school that conditioned the enrolment of students based on their parents’ commitment to not subject their daughters to FGM. Similarly, in the Afar region, Imams and local elders were engaged to emphasise that FGM was not a religious obligation, dispelling long-held misconceptions.
Community dialogues played a key role in facilitating open discussions about FGM. For instance, in Ethiopia’s Afar region, public declarations were organised, where entire communities collectively announced their decision to abandon FGM. In Mali, local NGOs partnered with community leaders to hold ‘intergenerational dialogues’, where older women who traditionally performed FGM were encouraged to engage with younger generations about the harmful effects of the practice. These discussions fostered trust and created a collective sense of responsibility to protect future generations.
Education was a cornerstone in changing attitudes towards FGM. In Kenya, various non-government organisations collaborated with schools and health workers to conduct workshops that educated girls, boys, parents and teachers about the medical risks associated with FGM and the human rights violations involved. Peer education programmes, where young girls who had avoided FGM shared their experiences, were particularly impactful. In Mali, radio campaigns in local languages were used to reach remote areas and spread awareness about the physical and psychological consequences of FGM.
One notable success story is the ‘Alternative Rite of Passage’ programme in Kenya. Instead of undergoing FGM, Maasai girls participated in a cultural ceremony that celebrated their transition to adulthood without the cutting. This programme was embraced by many families and became a new tradition that preserved cultural identity while eliminating the harmful practice. Over 20,000 girls have participated in this programme, contributing to a significant decline in FGM rates among the Maasai.
Legal frameworks also played a crucial role in supporting the abandonment of FGM. In Ethiopia, the government passed laws criminalising FGM, which were enforced at the local level through collaboration with law enforcement agencies. These laws were complemented by educational campaigns to ensure that community members understood the legal ramifications of continuing the practice. In Kenya, the 2011 Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act provided the legal foundation for prosecuting FGM cases, sending a strong signal that the practice was no longer acceptable.
In Kenya, local community policing groups, often composed of women, were formed to monitor and report any cases of FGM. These groups worked closely with law enforcement to ensure that the national law was effectively implemented in rural areas. Similarly, in Ethiopia’s Afar region, local administrators played a vital role in monitoring compliance with anti-FGM laws and offering protection to girls who resisted the practice.
Many of the successful initiatives provided healthcare and psychosocial support to survivors of FGM. In Mali, for example, healthcare clinics offered specialised services for women suffering from FGM-related complications, including reconstructive surgery and trauma counselling. These services not only provided much-needed care but also helped shift perceptions within the community by highlighting the long-term harm caused by FGM.
In Ethiopia, FGM abandonment programmes were integrated into broader maternal and child health services. Health workers were trained to educate mothers during antenatal visits about the dangers of FGM and to encourage them to protect their daughters from the practice. This integration ensured that messages about FGM were consistently reinforced in a healthcare setting.
Key Factors Contributing to Success
Several common factors emerged across the case studies:
- Community ownership – success was more likely when communities themselves led the efforts to abandon FGM, with external organisations providing support rather than imposing solutions.
- Cultural sensitivity – respecting cultural traditions while introducing alternative rites of passage helped communities maintain their identity without resorting to FGM.
- Involvement of local champions – activists from within the community, particularly women and youth, were instrumental in driving change and influencing public opinion.
Local champions like Kakenya Ntaiya in Kenya, as well as grassroots organisations working in the Afar and Bambara communities, were key to the success of these initiatives. These individuals and groups had the trust of the community and were able to challenge harmful traditions from within, making their advocacy more effective.
Successful programmes were those that approached the issue of FGM with respect for local customs and values. In Kenya, the Alternative Rite of Passage preserved the cultural importance of transitioning to adulthood, which helped gain acceptance for the abandonment of FGM.
Partnerships with international organisations provided the resources and expertise necessary to sustain anti-FGM campaigns. In Mali, collaborations with UNICEF and UNFPA helped local organisations access funding and technical support for awareness campaigns and healthcare services.
Challenges and Lessons Learned
Common obstacles faced during the process of abandonment included:
- Resistance from older generations – in many communities, elders were reluctant to abandon FGM due to its deep cultural significance.
- Secret practices – in some areas, FGM continued to be performed in secret, making enforcement of laws difficult.
- Economic dependence – in certain communities, traditional circumcisers depended on FGM for their livelihoods, creating economic incentives to continue the practice.
Strategies used to overcome these challenges included:
- Intergenerational dialogues helped bridge the gap between younger and older generations.
- Economic empowerment programmes provided alternative livelihoods for women who traditionally performed FGM, reducing economic incentives.
- Providing communities with information about the health risks and long-term physical, emotional and psychological consequences of FGM is crucial. This often includes sensitisation about complications such as infections, childbirth difficulties and sexual dysfunction.
- Educating younger generations, both boys and girls, about the dangers of FGM can help to break the cycle. Schools are effective platforms for changing attitudes early on.
Impact Assessment
The Maasai of Kenya
Among the Maasai, FGM is associated with a high risk of infection, childbirth complications and psychological trauma. Its abandonment has led to significant improvements in women’s reproductive and mental health. Reduced rates of childbirth complications such as obstetric fistula and haemorrhage are notable benefits.
Women who do not undergo FGM experience less trauma, leading to better mental well-being. Communities have also begun to understand the psychological burden imposed by FGM, including long-term stress and post-traumatic disorders.
Education campaigns, mostly driven by non-governmental organisations, the Kenyan government and local leaders, have changed attitudes in many Maasai communities. More families are seeing the harm associated with FGM and are embracing alternative rites of passage for girls, like community celebrations that do not involve cutting.
Abandoning FGM has contributed to slowly changing views on the role of women in Maasai society. As girls avoid this practice, there is greater emphasis on their education and autonomy, creating a generational shift in gender equality.
Despite progress, resistance remains. FGM is deeply intertwined with Maasai cultural identity, with some segments of the community viewing it as essential for a girl’s social acceptance and marriageability.
Kenya has criminalised FGM, with strict penalties for those practising or promoting it. Enforcement of these laws in Maasai communities, combined with education, creates the groundwork for the sustainable elimination of FGM.
The gradual acceptance of alternative rites and the promotion of girls’ education is fostering long-term change. As younger generations become more educated, the practice is expected to further diminish. The future outlook depends on sustained efforts from the government, local leaders and advocacy groups. Cultural traditions are slow to change, but with continued pressure and education, the Maasai are on a promising path towards eliminating FGM.
The Afar of Ethiopia
Among the Afar, FGM is linked to severe childbirth complications, higher maternal mortality, and reproductive health issues. Its abandonment is leading to better health outcomes, including reduced maternal and infant mortality. The practice of infibulation (the most severe form of FGM) prevalent among the Afar leads to frequent infections, urinary issues and sexual health problems. Discontinuing the practice has mitigated these health risks and improved women’s quality of life.
Among the Afar, FGM is justified on religious grounds. However, awareness programmes are now working closely with Islamic scholars who clarify that FGM is not a religious requirement. This has been instrumental in changing attitudes.
There is an emerging understanding that FGM does not define purity or womanhood. As a result, Afar communities are beginning to adopt new views on what it means to be a respected woman, based on education, family roles and other non-harmful cultural practices.
Attitudes towards FGM in Afar communities are changing slowly. While more communities are rejecting the practice, some remote areas still cling to it due to limited access to education and healthcare.
The Ethiopian government has taken a strong stance against FGM, and local efforts by community leaders have been crucial. Continuous engagement with local religious leaders ensures that messages against FGM are culturally relevant, aiding sustainability.
In the long term, the success of FGM abandonment in the Afar will depend on reinterpreting cultural traditions in ways that honour the past while eliminating harmful practices.
Education remains key. As long as pockets of the community remain isolated from outreach programmes, FGM could persist. Nonetheless, Ethiopia’s comprehensive approach to addressing both health risks and cultural beliefs makes the outlook cautiously optimistic.
The Bambara of Mali
In Mali, FGM (which often involves excision) leads to infections, sexual health complications and reproductive issues. Communities abandoning FGM among the Bambara have seen improved health outcomes, particularly in childbirth and reproductive care.
The practice of FGM has long been a source of trauma for many Bambara women. Its abandonment is associated with improved mental health, as women and girls no longer face the same trauma and stigma associated with the practice.
The Bambara community is strongly attached to FGM as a cultural tradition, particularly in rural areas. Changing attitudes has been slow, with many families still linking FGM to the preservation of cultural identity, marriageability and social cohesion.
Educational campaigns, often conducted by NGOs and community-based organisations, are shifting some attitudes towards FGM, especially in urban areas. However, rural communities are more resistant, and FGM is still widely seen as necessary.
Though the pace is slow, more Bambara parents are beginning to understand the health risks of FGM and opt not to subject their daughters to it. Schools and health clinics have become critical in advocating for change.
Mali has yet to fully criminalise FGM, which limits the sustainability of change. The lack of legal pressure allows the practice to continue in many areas. Advocacy for stronger legal frameworks is essential for long-term change. The future of FGM abandonment in the Bambara community depends heavily on sustained cultural shifts. Community leaders and religious figures play an essential role in reshaping the narrative around FGM.
Without comprehensive national legislation and broader community buy-in, the outlook remains mixed. Cultural traditions in rural areas will likely be slow to change, but ongoing advocacy and education campaigns offer hope for eventual eradication.
Across the Maasai, Afar and Bambara communities, sustained educational efforts are key. For long-term success, these efforts must include comprehensive education about the harms of FGM, the promotion of women’s rights, and alternatives to cultural rites of passage.
The success of FGM abandonment is closely tied to legal frameworks. Countries like Kenya and Ethiopia have made significant progress by criminalising the practice and enforcing these laws, but places like Mali lag behind, where the absence of strict laws impedes efforts to fully eliminate FGM.
Local community engagement, particularly involving religious and cultural leaders, is crucial for sustainable change. Communities must feel that they are part of the solution, rather than being dictated to by external forces.
Ongoing support from international organisations and governments will be crucial in ensuring long-term sustainability. Continued funding, advocacy and health programmes are needed to maintain progress in eradicating FGM in these communities.
Conclusion
The global movement towards abandoning the practice of FGM is gaining momentum, driven by a combination of education, advocacy and community engagement. By raising awareness of the severe health risks, human rights violations, and long-term psychological impacts associated with FGM, many communities are re-evaluating traditional practices in favour of safer, more equitable alternatives.
Collaborative efforts among local leaders, governments and international organisations are proving instrumental in changing attitudes and fostering cultural shifts. While progress varies, the growing rejection of FGM marks a critical step towards empowering women, safeguarding their rights, and promoting healthier, more inclusive societies.
Female Genital Mutilation laws in the UK are strict, aiming to prevent this harmful practice and protect women and girls. Anyone found guilty of FGM faces up to 14 years in prison, a fine or both. Failing to protect a girl from FGM can result in a sentence of up to 7 years in prison. It is illegal to perform FGM in the UK, and it is also illegal to take a UK national or a UK resident to another country to have FGM performed.
Several organisations work to raise awareness, support survivors and prevent FGM. Here are some of the key organisations:
- FORWARD (Foundation for Women’s Health Research and Development) – a leading African women-led organisation that campaigns to end FGM, child marriage, and other forms of violence against girls and women. They provide support services for survivors of FGM and advocate for policy changes.
- The National FGM Centre – a partnership between Barnardo’s and the Local Government Association (LGA), which aims to end FGM through prevention, support for survivors and community education. The Centre also works on other harmful practices such as breast ironing and child marriage.
- Orchid Project – a charity with a global focus on ending FGM by partnering with grassroots organisations and advocating for policy change. While their work is global, they also focus on the UK for awareness and community education.
- NSPCC FGM Helpline – the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children (NSPCC) offers a dedicated helpline to report concerns about children who may be at risk of FGM; they provide confidential support and advice. The FGM Helpline is 0800 028 3550.
- Integrate UK – a youth-led charity that empowers young people to campaign against FGM and other gender-based issues. They focus on education and awareness and provide a platform for young people to advocate against harmful practices.
International Day of Zero Tolerance for Female Genital Mutilation is observed on 6th February each year, with various UK organisations participating in campaigns, raising awareness and sharing educational resources. The UK government, alongside non-profit organisations, takes a holistic approach to combat FGM, focusing on legal measures, community engagement, education and survivor support.
For strategies for supporting survivors of FGM, please see our knowledge base.
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