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The Global Efforts to Combat and Prevent FGM

In this article

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is a grave violation of human rights that affects millions of girls and women worldwide. This harmful practice, often performed under the guise of tradition or cultural norms, has profound and long-lasting physical, emotional and psychological consequences. Despite decades of international efforts to combat FGM, it remains prevalent in many parts of Africa, the Middle East and Asia, as well as among migrant communities in Europe and North America. 

International organisations, governments and grassroots movements have united in the fight to end FGM, with strategies that range from legal frameworks to community education and empowerment. 

Introduction to FGM

Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is a deeply harmful practice that involves the partial or total removal of external female genitalia for non-medical reasons. It is internationally recognised as a violation of the human rights of girls and women, with severe physical, psychological and social consequences.

Preventing FGM

Definition and Types of FGM

FGM is typically classified into four main types, as outlined by the World Health Organization (WHO):

  • Type I: Clitoridectomy – This involves the partial or total removal of the clitoris and, in some cases, the prepuce (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris). This is one of the most common forms of FGM.
  • Type II: Excision – Excision involves the removal of the clitoris and the labia minora, with or without the removal of the labia majora (the larger outer folds of skin of the vulva). Like Type I, this form of FGM is performed under the belief that it will control a woman’s sexuality and make her more ‘marriageable’.
  • Type III: Infibulation – This is the most extreme form of FGM and involves the narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal, formed by cutting and repositioning the labia minora or labia majora. The clitoris may or may not be removed. Infibulation is associated with serious long-term health risks, including infections, chronic pain and complications during childbirth.
  • Type IV: Other Harmful Procedures – Type IV encompasses all other harmful procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical reasons, including pricking, piercing, incising, scraping and cauterisation.

Cultural, Social and Health Implications of FGM

Health Implications

The health consequences of FGM are severe and can be both immediate and long-term. Immediate complications include excessive bleeding, severe pain, infections and even death due to shock or haemorrhage. Over time, women who undergo FGM face increased risks during childbirth, including prolonged labour, caesarean sections, postpartum haemorrhage and stillbirth. Many women also suffer from chronic pain, urinary issues and increased vulnerability to infections, including HIV. The psychological effects can be equally devastating, with survivors often experiencing anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and issues related to their sexual and reproductive health.

Prevalence of FGM

FGM affects at least 230 million women and girls across more than 30 countries, with the highest prevalence in parts of Africa, the Middle East and Asia. Countries such as Somalia, Guinea and Djibouti have some of the highest rates of FGM, where over 90% of girls and women between the ages of 15 and 49 have undergone the procedure. In some communities, FGM is nearly universal, with young girls routinely subjected to the practice, often before the age of 15.

The practice is not limited to these regions, however. Global migration patterns have led to the spread of FGM into other parts of the world, including Europe, North America and Australia, where migrant communities continue to carry out the practice despite it being illegal in most of these countries. In the UK alone, it is estimated that around 137,000 women and girls are living with the consequences of FGM, many of whom were subjected to the practice in their countries of origin before arriving in the UK.

International Frameworks and Agreements

The fight to end Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is embedded in a broad range of international frameworks and agreements that aim to uphold human rights, protect women and girls and promote gender equality. 

Global Initiatives

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

The SDGs, adopted in 2015, provide a universal call to action for countries to work together in addressing global challenges, including FGM. SDG 5 focuses on achieving gender equality and empowering women and girls and specifically targets the elimination of harmful practices such as FGM under Goal 5.3. By framing FGM as an obstacle to gender equality, the SDGs have heightened international pressure on governments to prioritise anti-FGM measures, incorporate them into national policies and work towards eradicating the practice by 2030.

UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW)

CEDAW, often referred to as the ‘International Bill of Rights for Women’, is a landmark treaty adopted in 1979 by the UN General Assembly. It obligates member states to take measures to end all forms of discrimination against women, including harmful practices like FGM. Under Article 5 of CEDAW, governments are urged to eliminate traditional practices that are harmful to women’s health and well-being, including FGM. Countries that have ratified CEDAW are required to report regularly on the steps they are taking to protect women and girls from violence and harmful practices, including FGM.

The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC)

The CRC also plays a vital role in the global effort to combat FGM by affirming the rights of children to be protected from all forms of violence, abuse and harmful traditional practices. Article 24 of the CRC specifically calls on states to abolish traditional practices that are prejudicial to the health of children, placing FGM in direct violation of children’s rights to physical and mental health. Through the CRC, governments are held accountable for ensuring the protection of girls from FGM and other harmful practices.

Regional Efforts

Given that FGM is particularly prevalent in parts of Africa, regional cooperation is critical in the fight against the practice. The African Union (AU) launched its Campaign to End FGM in 2019 as part of its broader efforts to promote women’s rights and achieve gender equality across the continent. 

Adopted in 2003, the Maputo Protocol is a binding legal instrument that explicitly calls for the elimination of FGM and other harmful practices. Article 5 of the Protocol mandates African governments to enact laws that ban FGM and take all appropriate measures, including education and public awareness campaigns, to eradicate the practice. Many African countries have since adopted anti-FGM laws in compliance with the Protocol, although enforcement remains a challenge in some regions.

The Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children (IAC) is also a key player in regional efforts to combat FGM. This African-based non-governmental organisation (NGO) works closely with governments, civil society and international bodies to promote the abolition of FGM and other harmful traditional practices. 

International Resolutions

The UN General Assembly has passed several resolutions explicitly condemning FGM and calling for its global eradication. In 2012, the General Assembly adopted a historic resolution that called for the complete elimination of FGM worldwide. Subsequent resolutions have reinforced this stance, urging member states to intensify their efforts to prevent FGM, protect survivors and bring an end to impunity for those who carry out the practice.

The UN Human Rights Council has also taken a strong position against FGM, regularly adopting resolutions that call for intensified efforts to eliminate the practice. 

The Role of International Partnerships

Through initiatives like the UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on the Elimination of FGM, launched in 2008, governments, international organisations and local communities work together to develop comprehensive strategies aimed at ending FGM. This programme, which operates in more than 17 countries, focuses on prevention through education, legislation and community-based interventions and it has been successful in reducing the prevalence of FGM in several regions.

Key Organisations and Stakeholders

The global fight against Female Genital Mutilation is supported by a wide range of organisations and stakeholders, including international bodies, local non-governmental organisations (NGOs), grassroots movements and community leaders.

International Organisations

UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund)

UNICEF is one of the leading international organisations combating FGM, working to protect the rights of children, particularly girls, from harmful practices. Together with the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), UNICEF co-leads the UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation. 

In its efforts, UNICEF also uses data collection to track FGM prevalence and progress in various countries, helping governments and civil society groups to better target their interventions. By working closely with national governments, religious leaders and community groups, UNICEF helps to shift cultural attitudes towards the practice and advocates for the enforcement of anti-FGM laws.

World Health Organization (WHO)

The WHO plays a critical role in addressing the health impacts of FGM. It has developed medical guidelines for the care of survivors and issued global recommendations on how healthcare providers can prevent, manage and raise awareness about the harms of FGM. The WHO also engages in advocacy efforts by disseminating information on the medical and psychological consequences of FGM and training healthcare workers to recognise and treat FGM-related conditions.

Amnesty International

Amnesty International has long been at the forefront of the human rights movement and plays a significant role in advocating for the eradication of FGM. Through its End FGM European Network, Amnesty has worked to highlight the issue of FGM within European countries and to protect migrant and refugee communities at risk. The organisation pushes for stronger legal frameworks and better enforcement of existing laws that ban FGM.

UN Women

As the UN agency dedicated to gender equality and the empowerment of women, UN Women is actively engaged in the fight to end FGM. It supports gender-sensitive legislative reforms, advocates for women’s rights and works closely with governments, civil society and local organisations to address the root causes of FGM.

Combatting FGM

Local and Grassroots Organisations

While international organisations provide essential frameworks and resources, the real battle against FGM is often fought at the local level, where grassroots organisations and community activists work directly with those affected.

The Orchid Project

The Orchid Project is a UK-based charity dedicated to ending FGM worldwide. It works primarily by supporting grassroots organisations in FGM-affected countries, offering training, resources and funding to help local advocates raise awareness and drive change. The Orchid Project has been particularly effective in facilitating ‘community-led abandonment’ programmes, which empower communities to collectively decide to end FGM.

Tostan

Tostan is a Senegal-based NGO that has gained international recognition for its successful community-led approach to ending FGM. Through its Community Empowerment Program (CEP), Tostan educates communities about human rights, health and leadership, while also addressing sensitive issues like FGM.

Successful Strategies and Interventions

The global fight against Female Genital Mutilation has seen progress due to the implementation of various strategies and interventions. These efforts, focused on prevention, protection and the empowerment of communities, have been central to changing mindsets and reducing the prevalence of FGM. 

Education and Awareness Campaigns

Education and awareness are at the heart of most anti-FGM initiatives. By providing accurate information about the dangers and human rights violations associated with FGM, these campaigns help to dispel myths and challenge the cultural beliefs that perpetuate the practice.

Community-Based Educational Programmes

One of the most successful strategies in eradicating FGM is community-based education, which targets the groups most affected by FGM—families, women and traditional practitioners. These programmes provide safe spaces for open discussion, allowing people to talk about FGM and its harmful consequences without fear of judgement. Many of these programmes focus on human rights, gender equality and health, linking the conversation about FGM to broader social justice issues.

Mass Media Campaigns

Media plays a significant role in spreading awareness about the dangers of FGM and shifting public opinion. Radio, television and social media platforms are used to share real-life stories of FGM survivors, testimonies from healthcare professionals and messages from influential figures such as religious and community leaders.

In Kenya, the government and local NGOs have used radio campaigns to reach rural communities, where literacy levels may be low, but radio is a widely accessible source of information.

Youth Education and Empowerment

Involving young people in anti-FGM efforts is crucial, as they represent the generation that can ultimately break the cycle. Programmes aimed at educating girls and boys about the dangers of FGM, gender equality and reproductive health have been instrumental in fostering a new generation that rejects the practice.

In countries like Sierra Leone and Somalia organisations have worked with schools to incorporate FGM education into the curriculum, ensuring that children grow up understanding the risks and human rights violations associated with the practice.

 Legislation and Policy Reforms

Many countries have passed legislation criminalising FGM, providing legal protection for girls and women at risk and imposing penalties for those who perform the procedure.

Countries such as Kenya, Egypt and Burkina Faso have passed comprehensive anti-FGM laws, making it illegal to perform or assist in FGM. In Kenya, the 2011 Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act criminalised FGM and established the Anti-FGM Board, which coordinates efforts to end FGM across the country.

However, laws alone are not enough to eradicate FGM, particularly in rural areas where enforcement may be weak and social norms are deeply ingrained.

Community Engagement and Empowerment

Perhaps the most effective way to combat FGM is through the active involvement of the communities where it is practised. Many successful interventions focus on empowering communities to make their own decisions to abandon FGM by fostering dialogue and understanding rather than imposing external solutions.

Community-Led Declarations

Community-led approaches have been particularly effective in countries like Senegal, where NGOs like Tostan use a holistic, rights-based approach to empower villages to decide collectively to end FGM. By engaging with local leaders, women, men and youth, Tostan’s model fosters a shared understanding of the harmful impacts of FGM and promotes alternative rites of passage. This participatory method has led thousands of communities to publicly declare their abandonment of FGM.

Involvement of Religious and Traditional Leaders

Religious and traditional leaders are highly influential in many FGM-practising communities and their support is crucial in changing attitudes. Misunderstandings about religious obligations are often used to justify FGM, so working with these leaders to clarify that no major religion mandates the practice has been a key strategy in many successful interventions.

For instance, in Somalia and Sudan, where FGM is often justified on religious grounds, Islamic scholars have issued fatwas (religious rulings) declaring that FGM is not required by Islam.

Alternative Rites of Passage

In communities where FGM is a rite of passage marking the transition from girlhood to womanhood, introducing alternative rites of passage has proven successful. These alternative ceremonies maintain the cultural significance of the tradition without the physical harm of FGM. They often include teachings about health, human rights and the importance of education, empowering girls while preserving their cultural identity.

Support Services for Survivors

Beyond prevention efforts, providing support to FGM survivors is essential.

Medical Care and Reconstructive Surgery

In response to the health consequences of FGM, many healthcare providers offer specialised services for survivors, including reconstructive surgery to repair some of the physical damage caused by FGM. Hospitals and clinics in countries like Kenya, Egypt and the UK offer these services, helping women regain bodily function and reduce chronic pain associated with FGM.

Psychological Support

The psychological trauma caused by FGM can be long-lasting and many organisations provide counselling and mental health services to help survivors cope with anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Support groups and therapy sessions, often run by NGOs like FORWARD UK create safe spaces for survivors to share their experiences and begin the healing process.

Legal aid services help survivors of FGM seek justice and protection. In countries where FGM is criminalised, survivors often require assistance to navigate the legal system, whether they are seeking to prosecute perpetrators or prevent their daughters from undergoing the procedure. Organisations like Equality Now offer legal advocacy and representation, ensuring that survivors have access to justice and protection under the law.

Challenges and Barriers

Despite the considerable progress made in the global fight against Female Genital Mutilation, several challenges and barriers continue to hinder efforts to fully eradicate the practice.

Cultural Resistance

One of the most significant challenges in combating FGM is the strong cultural attachment to the practice in many communities where it is considered a rite of passage, a marker of identity or a religious obligation. For many, FGM is seen as essential to preserving cultural heritage and fulfilling societal expectations around womanhood, marriageability and purity.

In regions where FGM has been practised for generations, it is often considered a tradition that defines a girl’s transition into adulthood. Refusing the procedure can result in social ostracism, both for the girl and her family, as FGM is sometimes linked to notions of purity, honour and femininity.

Changing such deeply rooted beliefs requires time, sustained dialogue and culturally sensitive approaches that respect the values of the communities involved while promoting alternative perspectives.

Religious Misinterpretations

In some communities, FGM is believed to be a religious requirement, particularly in certain Muslim populations. However, no major world religion mandates the practice. Religious leaders, therefore, play a crucial role in debunking these myths and clarifying that FGM is not a religious obligation.

Lack of Political Will and Resources

While many countries have passed laws banning FGM, implementing and enforcing these laws remains a significant challenge. The lack of political will and insufficient resources to enforce legislation often results in a gap between policy and practice, allowing FGM to continue unchecked in many areas.

Even in countries with robust anti-FGM laws, enforcement is often inconsistent, especially in rural or remote regions where government oversight is limited. Local authorities may lack the resources, training or willingness to investigate and prosecute FGM cases, especially when the practice is widely accepted in the community. In some cases, law enforcement officials may themselves be supportive of the practice, further complicating efforts to hold perpetrators accountable.

Efforts to combat FGM are also often hampered by a lack of funding and inadequate infrastructure. Many countries, particularly in low-income regions, struggle to allocate sufficient resources to anti-FGM programmes, including awareness campaigns, healthcare services for survivors and the training of law enforcement personnel. This lack of investment limits the reach and effectiveness of interventions, especially in rural areas where FGM is most prevalent.

Secrecy and Evasion Tactics

As awareness of the harms of FGM grows and more countries criminalise the practice, communities that still support FGM are increasingly adopting tactics to evade detection. This makes it more challenging for authorities to identify and prevent FGM cases, particularly when they occur in secret or outside the country.

In countries with strong legal frameworks, families may take their daughters across borders to countries where FGM is less strictly regulated or enforced, a practice known as ‘FGM tourism’. 

In urban areas, where FGM is more likely to be scrutinised, the practice has been driven underground. Families may hire medical professionals or traditional practitioners to perform FGM in private homes, hospitals or clinics to avoid detection.

Implementation Issues

Even when anti-FGM laws are in place, implementing these laws and ensuring compliance is a complex task. 

Enforcing anti-FGM legislation requires trained law enforcement personnel, healthcare providers and social workers who understand the complexities of FGM and know how to respond effectively. In many countries, these professionals either lack the training or resources to properly address FGM cases. 

Accurate data is essential for understanding the scope of FGM and tailoring interventions to target high-prevalence areas. However, in many countries, the systems for monitoring FGM are weak or non-existent. This lack of reliable data hampers efforts to track progress and identify where resources should be allocated.

Case Studies

Case studies of successful anti-FGM campaigns and interventions provide powerful insights into the strategies that have worked to reduce or eliminate Female Genital Mutilation in various contexts. These examples show how a combination of education, community engagement, legislation and survivor support can lead to real change.

Senegal: Tostan’s Community-Led Approach

In Senegal, the NGO Tostan has pioneered a community-led approach that has been instrumental in reducing FGM in thousands of villages across West Africa.

Key Strategies

  • Human Rights Education – Tostan’s programmes focus on teaching communities about human rights, health and the well-being of girls and women. By framing the discussion around universal human rights rather than condemning FGM outright, the programme builds local understanding of the issue without alienating or shaming participants.
  • Community Declarations – Tostan facilitates public declarations, where entire villages publicly pledge to abandon FGM. This collective approach reduces the pressure on individual families to conform to traditional practices.
  • Involvement of Religious and Community Leaders – Traditional and religious leaders are involved in discussions, helping to shift community norms and lend authority to the movement to abandon FGM.

Results

Since its inception, Tostan’s approach has led to over 9,000 villages in Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea and other West African countries making public declarations to abandon FGM and child marriage.

Global efforts to stop FGM

Kenya: Alternative Rites of Passage for Maasai Girls

In Kenya, particularly among the Maasai community, FGM has been a deeply rooted tradition marking the transition from girlhood to womanhood. However, a successful strategy involving Alternative Rites of Passage (ARP) has helped reduce the prevalence of FGM while respecting cultural traditions.

Key Strategies

  • Maintaining Cultural Significance Without Harm – ARP programmes retain the celebratory and symbolic aspects of traditional coming-of-age ceremonies, replacing the physical cutting with education on reproductive health, human rights and leadership. Girls are still celebrated and recognised as mature women in their communities, without undergoing FGM.
  • Community Engagement and Support – The involvement of Maasai elders, parents and community leaders has been key to the success of these programmes. By gaining the support of the broader community, ARP initiatives have helped shift attitudes while allowing families to maintain cultural pride.

Results

In areas like Kajiado and Narok counties, ARP programmes have led to a significant decrease in the prevalence of FGM.

Future Directions

Despite progress, millions of girls remain at risk each year and the persistence of FGM calls for innovative, collaborative and sustained efforts. One of the most promising areas in the global effort to end FGM is the growing use of technology. Digital platforms and data-driven strategies are increasingly being used to raise awareness, track progress and reach communities that are otherwise difficult to engage.

Social media platforms and digital campaigns are playing a crucial role in spreading anti-FGM messages, particularly among younger generations. Organisations are using Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and TikTok to share educational content, survivor stories and legal information, helping to shift social norms. 

The use of mobile technology is also helping to disseminate information about FGM to remote areas where traditional media may not reach. Mobile apps and SMS campaigns are being used to educate communities, link at-risk girls with support services and report cases of FGM. This real-time information can be vital in preventing FGM and offering timely interventions.

Accurate data collection is essential for understanding the prevalence of FGM and tailoring interventions. With the rise of digital tools, NGOs and governments are beginning to use mobile technology and geographic information systems (GIS) to collect data in real time, allowing for more efficient monitoring and response efforts. Digital platforms can help track the implementation of anti-FGM laws and the reach of awareness programmes, ensuring that resources are directed to the areas where they are needed most.

Community-Led and Culturally Sensitive Approaches

While technology is a valuable tool, the importance of community-led and culturally sensitive approaches cannot be overstated. FGM is a practice rooted in cultural traditions and efforts to end it must be grounded in respect for the values and beliefs of the communities involved. The future of FGM eradication will depend on continued collaboration with local leaders, grassroots organisations and traditional authorities.

Religious and traditional leaders are often the gatekeepers of cultural practices and their support is essential in changing attitudes towards FGM. Future efforts will need to focus on increasing the involvement of these leaders in anti-FGM campaigns. Religious scholars, particularly in regions where FGM is linked to Islamic practices, have a crucial role in debunking myths and clarifying that FGM is not a religious requirement. 

Similarly, working with traditional leaders, elders and local influencers can help reshape cultural norms from within the community. As seen in Senegal with Tostan’s model, community declarations against FGM can foster collective action, reducing the pressure on individuals to conform to harmful practices. 

Integration with Broader Gender Equality and Development Initiatives

Ending FGM is not an isolated goal; it is deeply connected to broader issues of gender equality, women’s empowerment and access to education. Future efforts to combat FGM must be integrated into wider development frameworks, particularly those that focus on improving health, education and economic opportunities for women and girls.

For example, linking anti-FGM initiatives with programmes that promote girls’ education and economic empowerment can create sustainable change. Educated girls are more likely to reject harmful practices like FGM and advocate for their own rights, while women with economic independence can resist societal pressures to conform to these norms.

Legal frameworks will continue to play a crucial role in the fight against FGM. While many countries have passed laws banning FGM, the challenge lies in ensuring that these laws are effectively implemented and enforced. Future efforts must focus on strengthening legal frameworks, enhancing law enforcement capacities and providing survivors with access to justice.

Future progress will require the tightening of national legal frameworks, especially in countries where FGM is still practised despite its legal prohibition. This includes closing loopholes in existing laws, ensuring that punishments for offenders are adequately enforced and providing comprehensive training for law enforcement and judicial officials to handle FGM cases sensitively and effectively.

As cross-border FGM becomes a growing concern, particularly in regions like East Africa and West Africa, future initiatives will need to focus on fostering regional cooperation. Governments must work together to address the issue of ‘FGM tourism’, where families take girls to neighbouring countries with weaker enforcement to undergo the procedure. Strengthening international agreements and encouraging joint law enforcement efforts will be key to closing these gaps.

Long-Term Support for Survivors

Another crucial aspect of future efforts will be the provision of long-term support for survivors of FGM. The physical, psychological and emotional consequences of FGM can last a lifetime and survivors often face stigma and isolation from their communities. Expanding access to healthcare, counselling and economic support for survivors will be essential in the years to come.

Future interventions should focus on improving access to healthcare for survivors, particularly in rural areas where medical services are often limited. Specialised care for FGM survivors, including reconstructive surgery and psychological counselling, should be made more widely available. NGOs and healthcare providers must continue to train professionals to address the complex needs of FGM survivors, ensuring that they receive compassionate, culturally sensitive care.

In addition to healthcare, survivors often need support to reintegrate into their communities, particularly if they have rejected FGM or faced ostracism for speaking out against the practice. Future programmes should focus on providing survivors with educational and economic opportunities, allowing them to rebuild their lives and become advocates for change within their communities.

Conclusion

The global fight against Female Genital Mutilation has made significant strides, but much work remains. FGM continues to harm millions of girls worldwide, with deeply rooted cultural and social barriers complicating efforts to eradicate it. International frameworks, grassroots organisations, legal reforms and community engagement have proven to be effective strategies, but ongoing challenges, including cultural resistance and enforcement gaps, persist. By leveraging innovative approaches such as digital advocacy, strengthening legal and policy frameworks and providing long-term support for survivors, global efforts can continue to drive meaningful change. Collective action from governments, communities and individuals is essential to achieving the ultimate goal: a world free from FGM.

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About the author

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Louise Woffindin

Louise is a writer and translator from Sheffield. Before turning to writing, she worked as a secondary school language teacher. Outside of work, she is a keen runner and also enjoys reading and walking her dog Chaos.