Epilepsy Symptoms, Causes and Treatments

Historically, epilepsy has been a misunderstood and stigmatised disorder, and unfortunately because of some of the myths and misconceptions that still surround the condition, many people with epilepsy experience stigma and in some cases discrimination. 

Contrary to some misnomers, epilepsy is not a disease, nor is it an illness, and it is not contagious. Epilepsy is a neurological disorder that cannot be transmitted to another person. Epilepsy is also not a mental health condition or illness. It is an umbrella term covering different types of seizure disorders. Although epilepsy usually starts either in childhood or in people over 60 years, anyone can develop epilepsy at any time of their life. 

Epilepsy is also not a learning disability. Although around 20% of people with epilepsy do have learning disabilities, which is higher than the 2.16% of people in the general population, there is no causal link between epilepsy and learning disabilities. 

Epilepsy is not necessarily experienced in the same way by those who have the condition, as there are many different types of epilepsy; however, they all do have one thing in common, which is a tendency to have seizures which start in the brain, There are also many different types of seizure within epilepsy, and the type of seizure that a person has depends on which part of their brain is affected and what that part of the brain controls.

These are just some of the common myths and misconceptions about epilepsy that are still in evidence today. The lack of information regarding the condition is believed to be an important contributing factor to the persistence of enormous social stigma, beliefs, attitudes and sometimes discrimination surrounding epilepsy. Raising awareness about the facts of epilepsy, and dispelling these and other common myths, can improve safety and inclusion for the millions of people worldwide who have or develop the condition.

In this article we will examine epilepsy in more detail, together with some of the causes and the array of symptoms those with different types of the condition may experience, and we will explore the treatments that are available. 

Learning about epilepsy and some of the crucial aspects such as seizure first aid, can help people to feel more comfortable being around someone with epilepsy, which can help to raise awareness, and reduce stigma and discrimination. It can also improve the confidence of the person affected by epilepsy, particularly knowing that others have enough awareness to prioritise their safety.

What is Epilepsy?

Epilepsy is an invisible condition that causes recurring, unprovoked seizures. These are sudden surges of abnormal and excessive electrical activity in the brain and can affect how a person appears or acts. Not all seizures are due to epilepsy, however. Other conditions that can look like epilepsy include, but are not limited to, a medication reaction, alcohol withdrawal, metabolic problems such as kidney or liver failure, or when people with diabetes have low blood sugar and have a diabetic seizure, but these are usually singular events.

Epilepsy, on the other hand, is a chronic (long term) neurologic disorder that causes repeated seizure activity. Neurological disorders are medically defined as disorders that affect the brain as well as the nerves found throughout the human body and the spinal cord. Epilepsy is the fourth most common neurological disorder in the world.

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that around 50 million people worldwide have epilepsy, and that nearly 80% of people with epilepsy live in low- and middle-income countries. 

In the UK an estimated 633,000 people are living with epilepsy, and there are around 43 new cases of epilepsy in every 100,000 people in one year. Overall this means that there are 28,813 new cases of epilepsy each year in the UK, or 79 a day. The prevalence and incidence of epilepsy in the UK is similar to that of other high-income countries, with peaks at younger and older age, and a dip in the middle.

The researchers of this study published in Seizure journal also noted that there was a connection between the more deprived areas in the UK and a higher level of epilepsy, confirming previous findings. People in the most deprived areas of the UK are more than a third more likely to have epilepsy than those in the least deprived areas, which is something the study authors say needs more research, although this finding appears to correlate with the statistics above from the WHO.

The word epilepsy (επιληψíα) originates from the Greek verb epilambanein (επιλαμβάνειν), which means ‘to seize, possess, or afflict’, and the first description of an epileptic seizure appears in a text from 2000 BC. Greek Philosopher Hippocrates, widely known as the Father of Medicine, was the first recorded person to hypothesise that epilepsy came from within the brain rather than being associated with demonic possession.

However, it was not until the late 17th / early 18^th century that physicians and scholars of Hippocrates, particularly in Persia (modern-day Iran), began studying epilepsy in more detail and building on the work and writings of the Greek Philosopher who came before them. These Persian physicians were the first to notice that some people were born with epilepsy, whilst others developed it commonly from head injuries. They also found that it could be controlled by diet.

By the 19th century, epilepsy was still largely misunderstood and stigmatised, with many still believing that epilepsy was caused by magic or supernatural forces. In the 1860s, British neurologist John Hughlings Jackson had determined that seizures were due to activity in the brain. For the first time, he hypothesised that seizures present differently depending upon the part of the brain from which they originated.

During this time, however, in the UK, employment prospects for people with the condition were virtually non-existent and many people with the condition ended up in the workhouses or asylums of Victorian England. Some of the experiences of people with epilepsy during this time can be found in the archives of the Royal College of Physicians. 

During the 20th century research into epilepsy accelerated. A major figure in the history of epilepsy was French scientist Henri Jean Pascal Gastaut (1915–1995) who made a big contribution to our understanding of epilepsy with his work using electroencephalogram (EEG).

The International League Against Epilepsy took a leadership role in 1969 when it accepted the first “Clinical and electroencephalographic classification of epileptic seizures” at its General Assembly in New York. The new standards created common terminology for epilepsy. A shared set of terminology facilitated improved communication and information-sharing among researchers and physicians. Those original classifications were updated in 1981 and 1989 before the most recent update in 2014.

Significant advances in diagnostic imaging have been made in the last 50 years, which have enabled the medical profession to better understand brain activity, leading to improvements in diagnosis and treatment. In the modern era it can be argued that one of the greatest advances in the field of epilepsy is the improvement in societal attitudes towards those with epilepsy, and in the way that people with epilepsy are treated and regarded. Some discrimination does continue, and in other countries around the world similar progress has been slow. However, improving understanding of the condition and dispelling myths and misconceptions can help to raise awareness in the general public and enhance the quality of life for people with epilepsy.

Causes of Epilepsy

Epilepsy is not just one condition, but a group of many different ‘epilepsies’, and as such epilepsy has many different causes and can be different for each person, with some people having no identifiable cause. Epilepsy may be directly traced in some people to:

Genetics

Genetic factors are more likely if there is a strong history of epilepsy in other family members, although most children of people with epilepsy do not develop epilepsy. A genetic epilepsy occurs when an individual inherits a gene, or a number of genes, that result in a higher likelihood of seizures. Some changes in genes can occur spontaneously in a child without being present in either parent; in addition, some types of epilepsy with a genetic cause may also have additional environmental causes as well. Some epilepsy syndromes are more likely to be caused by genes. Examples of epilepsy syndromes that are thought to have a genetic cause include:

• Childhood absence epilepsy (CAE)
• Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME)
• Genetic epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS+)

The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends genetic testing for certain people, for example, if epilepsy started before the age of 2 years, or if the person has other features that might suggest a genetic cause for their epilepsy. Genetic testing for epilepsy is usually done using a sample of blood. The sample is sent to a laboratory to be analysed. The test looks at the person’s genes to see if there are changes that might cause epilepsy. Research into epilepsy and genetics is being carried out all the time to try to find out more about which genes might cause epilepsy and which ones are likely to be inherited.

Developmental disorders

• Focal cortical dysplasia – this occurs when the top layer of the brain does not form properly
• Polymicrogyria – this is characterised by abnormal development of the brain before birth
• Tuberous sclerosis – this is a disorder that causes tumours to develop in many parts of the body including the brain 

Brain trauma

traumatic brain injury is a well-recognised cause of seizures and epilepsy. It is the result of an external force on the head and can occur as a result of:

• The head suddenly and violently hitting an object, for example in falls, car accidents, sports injuries etc.
• Severe shaking of the head such as in shaken baby child abuse
• An object piercing the skull and entering brain tissue such as a gunshot wound, other military combat
• Pieces of the skull compressing or penetrating brain tissue, such as skull fractures

Seizures can occur early, within the first week of the brain injury, or late, more than a week after brain injury. Seizures which occur early after a traumatic brain injury are felt to be a symptom of the recent injury. Seizures which occur in the late period after a traumatic brain injury are more likely to recur and result in epilepsy.

• Autoimmune disorders – changes in the body’s immune function can cause autoimmune epilepsy. The immune system protects the body from foreign substances or things that could harm the body. Certain types of cells are important in the body’s immune response, such as macrophages, lymphocytes (B cells and T cells), and antibodies. Antibodies that target the brain such as those that are sometimes linked to cancer, may be the cause of autoimmune epilepsy. 
• Metabolic issues – the energy that a body and brain need to function correctly is gained from foods through a complex process known as metabolism. When metabolic systems don’t work correctly, it can sometimes cause seizures. Metabolic causes of epilepsy mainly start to show in infancy or early childhood. Metabolic disorders can cause seizures through one of three ways: 

• Deficiencies – some metabolic disorders stop the brain from getting enough energy, and this then causes seizures. 
• Toxic substances – some metabolic disorders mean the body does not correctly process certain types of nutrients. This can lead to a build-up of toxic substances, and that can cause seizures.
• Problems with how cells function – some metabolic disorders mean that cells in the brain do not work correctly, which leads to seizures.

There are at least eight metabolic disorders that can cause epilepsy according to the International League Against Epilepsy, but some scientists believe there could be several more.

Infectious diseases

Epilepsy can sometimes occur with infections such as meningitis, HIV, viral encephalitis and some parasitic infections. Certain pathogens possess the ability to directly infiltrate the central nervous system, triggering a cascade of events that can lead to seizures. One possible explanation may be that the increased risk of epilepsy stems from the immune response associated with the infection rather than from the infection itself.

When epilepsy is caused by an identifiable factor it is known as symptomatic epilepsy and means that the seizures are a symptom of some type of brain malfunction or injury. Symptomatic epilepsy can arise from, for example, head trauma, involving a penetrating injury to the brain; brain tumours both benign and malignant; bacterial, fungal, parasitic and viral infections, especially herpes; and strokes. There is commonly more than one seizure type in symptomatic generalised epilepsy.

Idiopathic generalised epilepsy affects about one third of people who have epilepsy, which means that the person was either born with epilepsy or it developed without any other known cause. There are several different kinds of idiopathic generalised epilepsy and some of them are known to be genetic. Some kinds of idiopathic generalised epilepsies are lifelong; however, some childhood epilepsies gradually stop on their own as people get older.

Symptoms of Epilepsy

Seizure symptoms vary depending on the type of seizure. Seizures are divided into groups depending on:

• Where they start in the brain (onset)
• Whether or not a person’s awareness is affected
• Whether or not seizures involve other symptoms, such as movement

New terms to describe and classify seizures have been developed by the International League Against Epilepsy. This was done to make the names of seizures more accurate, less confusing, and more descriptive of what is happening. There are now three major groups of seizures:

• Generalised Onset Seizures – these seizures affect both sides of the brain or groups of cells on both sides of the brain at the same time.
• Focal Onset Seizures – the term focal is used instead of partial to be more accurate when talking about where seizures begin. Focal seizures can start in one area or group of cells in one side of the brain.
• Unknown Onset Seizures – when the beginning of a seizure is not known, it is now called an unknown onset seizure. A seizure could also be called an unknown onset if it is not witnessed or seen by anyone, for example when seizures happen at night or in a person who lives alone.

Although many different symptoms happen during a seizure, the new classification separates them simply into groups that involve movement.

For generalised onset seizures

• Motor symptoms may include sustained rhythmical jerking movements (clonic), muscles becoming weak or limp (atonic), muscles becoming tense or rigid (tonic), brief muscle twitching (myoclonus), or epileptic spasms (body flexes and extends repeatedly).
• Non-motor symptoms are usually called absence seizures. These can be typical or atypical absence seizures (staring spells). Absence seizures can also have brief twitches (myoclonus) that can affect a specific part of the body or just the eyelids.

For focal onset seizures

• Motor symptoms may also include jerking (clonic), muscles becoming limp or weak (atonic), tense or rigid muscles (tonic), brief muscle twitching (myoclonus), or epileptic spasms. There may also be automatisms or repeated automatic movements, like clapping or rubbing of hands, lip smacking or chewing, or running.
• Non-motor symptoms – examples of symptoms that don’t affect movement could be changes in sensation, emotions, thinking or cognition, autonomic functions (such as gastrointestinal sensations, waves of heat or cold, goose bumps, heart racing, etc.), or lack of movement (called behaviour arrest).

For unknown onset seizures

• Motor seizures are described as either tonic-clonic or epileptic spasms.
• Non-motor seizures usually include a behaviour arrest. This means that movement stops, the person may just stare and not make any other movements.

Let’s look at some of these seizure terms in more detail.

Clonic seizures

These are rare and most commonly occur in babies. Most often, clonic movements are seen as part of a tonic-clonic seizure. Clonic seizures involve repeated rhythmical jerking movements of one side or part of the body or both sides (the whole body) depending on where the seizure starts. Seizures can start in one part of the brain (called focal motor) or affect both sides of the brain (called generalised clonic).

Tonic-clonic seizures

These are the seizures that most people think of as epilepsy. At the start of the seizure the person becomes unconscious, their body goes stiff and if they are standing up they usually fall backwards. They may also cry out and they may bite their tongue or cheek. During the seizure they jerk and shake as their muscles relax and tighten rhythmically, and their breathing might be affected and become difficult or sound noisy.

Their skin may change colour and become very pale or bluish and they may wet themselves. After the seizure (once the jerking stops), their breathing and colour usually return to normal and they may feel tired, confused, have a headache, or want to sleep. Sometimes focal seizures spread from one side (hemisphere) to both sides of the brain. This is called a focal to bilateral tonic-clonic seizure. When this happens the person becomes unconscious and will usually have a tonic-clonic (jerking or shaking) seizure. If this happens very quickly, they may not be aware that it started as a focal seizure.

Atonic seizure

In this type of seizure muscles suddenly become limp. Part or all of the body may become limp, the eyelids may droop, the head may nod or drop forward, and the person may drop things, and if standing, the person often falls to the ground and may get injured when they fall. Usually, atonic seizures affect both sides of the brain, although they can start in one part of the brain with a loss of tone in one part of the body. Atonic seizures typically last less than 15 seconds. When a person’s muscles are stiff or rigid, these seizures are called tonic seizures. Tonic seizures tend to be very brief and happen without warning.

Myoclonic seizures

These are brief but can happen in clusters with several occurring over a short time, and often happen shortly after waking. In myoclonic seizures the person is conscious, but they are classified as generalised seizures. This is because the person is likely to have other seizures such as tonic-clonic seizures, as well as myoclonic seizures.

These seizures can be easily overlooked because they are so brief and appear as extra normal movements and can be mistaken for tics, tremors or clumsiness. With a myoclonic seizure, there is usually a brief jerk of the body. This may result in someone dropping an object, or less commonly can lead to a fall. When a myoclonic seizure ends, the person usually continues doing whatever they were doing before and during the seizure. They are awake and able to think clearly. 

Absence seizures

These are so brief they are often missed. An absence seizure causes a short period of ‘blanking out’ or staring into space. Like other kinds of seizures, they are caused by brief abnormal electrical activity in a person’s brain. There are two types of absence seizures that may look a bit different: typical absence seizures and atypical absence seizures. Typical absences are the most common; the person suddenly stops all activity without any warning, and it may look as if they are staring off into space or just have a blank look.

These seizures usually last less than 10-20 seconds and the person may be momentarily confused for only a few seconds but then is back to normal. Atypical absence seizures may be longer, have a slower onset and offset, and involve different symptoms. The seizure still starts with staring into space, usually with a blank look, and there is usually a change in muscle tone and movement.

The person may blink over and over, smack their lips or perform chewing movements, rub their fingers together or make other hand motions. An atypical absence seizure lasts longer than a typical absence seizure, up to 20 seconds or more. Absence seizures usually affect only a person’s awareness of what is going on during the actual seizure, with immediate recovery.

Focal aware seizures

These were previously known as simple or complex partial seizures. Simple partial seizures involve a small portion or a focal area of the brain. Complex partial seizures start in one area and travel to another. During the seizure the person may feel ‘strange’ but not able to describe the feeling afterwards. This may be upsetting or frustrating for them. Focal aware seizures are sometimes called ‘warnings’ or ‘auras’ because, for some people, a focal aware seizure develops into another type of seizure. Symptoms can include:

• Making lip-smacking or chewing movements, repeatedly picking up objects or pulling at clothes
• Suddenly losing muscle tone and limbs going limp or floppy, or limbs suddenly becoming stiff
• Repetitive jerking movements that affect one or both sides of the body
• Making a loud cry or scream
• Making strange postures or repetitive movements such as cycling or kicking
• A ‘rising’ feeling in the stomach
• Deja vu – feeling as if you have been here before 
• Getting an unusual smell or taste
• A sudden intense feeling of fear or joy
• A strange feeling like a ‘wave’ going through the head
• Stiffness or twitching in part of the body such as an arm or hand
• A feeling of numbness or tingling
• A sensation that an arm or leg feels bigger or smaller than it actually is
• Visual disturbances such as coloured or flashing lights
• Hallucinations such as seeing something that isn’t actually there

Some things make seizures more likely for some people with epilepsy. These are often called ‘triggers’. Triggers don’t cause epilepsy. But for someone who already has epilepsy, they make seizures more likely. The type of epilepsy that a person has might make a difference to what triggers they may have. Some triggers seem to be more common in people who have generalised seizures and others in people who have focal seizures, but generally seizure triggers will be very individual to the person. 

It is a misnomer that flashing lights trigger all epilepsy; in reality only 3-5% of people with epilepsy have seizures that are triggered by flashing or flickering lights. This is called photosensitive epilepsy. For a person with photosensitive epilepsy, both natural and artificial light may trigger seizures, which includes light from devices and screens, such as TVs, tablets, smartphones and games consoles, and they might even find that some patterns, such as stripes or checks, trigger seizures. A person would usually have a seizure when they are looking at the trigger, or shortly after.

Many people with epilepsy say that feeling tired or not sleeping well can trigger seizures. This can end up causing a cycle, as having seizures can affect sleep and make the person even more tired. Lack of sleep and tiredness seem to be triggers for both generalised and focal seizures.

Other common triggers can include, but are not limited to:

• Missing one or more doses of epilepsy medication is one of the most common seizure triggers
• Feeling stressed, anxious or depressed
• Long periods of time without eating, which can lead to dehydration, not enough fluids, low blood sugar, and vitamin and mineral deficiencies
• Alcohol including heavy alcohol use or alcohol withdrawal
• Recreational drug use
• Having a high temperature due to an infection or illness
• At certain times of the menstrual cycle
• Caffeine in food and drinks
• Smoking and vaping
• Changes in the weather and extreme temperatures

Triggers are different for everyone, so it helps to keep a seizure diary as a good way to try and find out what might trigger your seizures. Some people find that seizures may occur in a pattern or are more likely to occur in certain situations or under certain conditions. Keeping track of any factors that may bring on a seizure can help to manage seizure triggers and lessen the chance that a seizure may occur under those circumstances.

Diagnosing Epilepsy

Anyone who has experienced a seizure should in the first instance contact their GP. If there is a possibility that you have epilepsy, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends that you are referred to a specialist called a neurologist within two weeks. NICE produces guidelines for diagnosing and treating specific health conditions in England and Wales including epilepsy. 

Having a seizure and diagnosing the type of seizure or epilepsy syndrome can be difficult. The doctor would try to figure out if another medical condition, such diabetes, caused the seizure, and whether treatment will be needed for that condition. If another cause has been eliminated, a diagnosis for epilepsy is based on finding out what happened before, during and after the seizures, and an evaluation of the person’s medical history. 

The neurologist will perform a complete neurological exam to find out how well the brain and the rest of the nervous system are functioning. Tests may include:

An electroencephalogram (EEG) – this is used to check for unusual electrical activity in the brain that can happen in people with epilepsy.

A brain scan such as a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan – this uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create an image of the brain and can help spot problems in the brain that can sometimes cause epilepsy, such as:

• An unusual growth, such as a brain tumour
• Damage to the brain, such as damage caused by a stroke
• Scarring in the brain

A person suspecting epilepsy will probably have a few medical tests as there is no single test that can diagnose epilepsy. How long an epilepsy diagnosis will take depends on a few things, including what the symptoms are and where the person lives. 

Epilepsy is usually diagnosed if a person has more than one seizure or if the specialist thinks there is a high chance the person could have more than one seizure, based on their medical history or test results. Whilst waiting for a diagnosis, it is recommended that, for safety reasons, a person:

• Has showers rather than baths
• Avoids any water activities such as swimming
• Avoids working at height
• Avoids driving
• Contacts their GP for advice if they have another seizure

The Epilepsy Society’s confidential helpline is available for anyone affected by epilepsy and provides support for those awaiting diagnosis or newly diagnosed.

Getting an accurate diagnosis for epilepsy is crucial as it is estimated that up to 70% of people living with epilepsy could live seizure-free if properly diagnosed and treated.

Treatments for Epilepsy

There is no known cure for epilepsy; however, accurate diagnosis can enable doctors to prescribe treatments that can help most people with epilepsy have fewer seizures, or stop having seizures completely. 

There are many different medicines known as anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) that can prevent or stop seizures and are almost always the first treatment tried. Valproate medicines are an effective treatment for epilepsy. These include sodium valproate and valproic acid. The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Association (MHRA) have set rules about how doctors can prescribe valproates and there are different rules for children, women and men.

The specialist doctor will discuss medication options with the person with epilepsy, as individual circumstances and preferences need to be taken into consideration when prescribing. Side effects are common when starting treatment with AEDs and depend on the medicine prescribed; however, anyone experiencing rashes or symptoms such as unsteadiness, poor concentration and being sick could mean that the dose is too high or they are having an adverse reaction to the medicine. In this case the patient should contact their GP immediately. Seizure medicines successfully control seizures for about 70% of people with epilepsy. 

Epilepsy surgery is a treatment option for some people with seizures that can’t be controlled by taking epilepsy medicines. The type of surgery recommended is dependent upon the age of the patient. For children who have epilepsy, brain surgery can be a more effective treatment than taking epilepsy medicine. Specialist doctors assess each child’s suitability for epilepsy surgery. For adults with epilepsy, NICE guidelines state that people with drug-resistant epilepsy should be offered a referral for surgery. As with all surgeries, there are risks involved, and the surgeon will discuss these with the patient prior to any surgery.

There are other procedures that could help if AEDs are not controlling the seizures and brain surgery is not a suitable option, such as:

• Vagus nerve stimulation (VNS) – this is a small electrical device similar to a pacemaker that is placed under the skin of the chest. The device is attached to a wire that goes under the skin and connects to a nerve in the neck called the Vagus nerve; bursts of electricity are sent along the wire to the nerve. It is thought this can help control seizures by changing the electrical signals in the brain. VNS does not usually stop seizures completely, but it can help make them less severe and less frequent.
• Deep brain stimulation (DBS) – this is similar to VNS, but the device placed in the chest is connected to wires that run directly into the brain. 
• A ketogenic diet – this is a diet high in fats and low in carbohydrates and protein. In children, the diet is thought to make seizures less likely by changing the levels of chemicals in the brain. Dietary treatments for epilepsy must only be followed with the support of an experienced epilepsy specialist and dietitian.
• An alarm/monitor can alert family or friends when someone has a seizure.

As we have previously stated, every person’s experience of epilepsy is unique and this is why it is important that their treatment and management plans are personalised to their own particular individual needs. The plan should be agreed between the individual and their healthcare professional and include details of their care support and reviews of their epilepsy.

Living with Epilepsy

Living with a long-term condition such as epilepsy can have a huge impact on people’s lives. Well-being is important in epilepsy, as people with epilepsy are at a higher risk of mental health issues such as stress, anxiety or depression. As stress is thought to be a seizure trigger for many people, it is especially important to look after both physical and mental well-being by:

• Eating a healthy, balanced diet
• Participating in physical activities such as exercise, walking, etc. 
• Having good sleep routines 
• Limiting alcohol intake

Whilst managing triggers and maintaining medication regimes are key aspects of living with the condition, epilepsy can have an impact on so many aspects of a person’s life. However, the condition does not necessarily have to restrict what a person wants to do. They will need to think about what this will mean for them in practical terms, and about what support they might need, and prepare. Being well prepared will help to make the most of the opportunities available. 

Charities and support networks offer a range of advice, support and information on a range of topics including education, employment, finance, travel and safety, and many also provide advice for friends, families and caregivers of those with epilepsy. These include:

• The Epilepsy Society
• Epilepsy Action (the working name of British Epilepsy Association)
• The National Centre for Young People with Epilepsy – Young Epilepsy
• The Brain Charity
• SUDEP Action
• The Voice For Epilepsy

Conclusion

As we have seen in this article, epilepsy is a common and serious neurological condition which affects the brain and nervous system. However, people with epilepsy are usually able to do as much as any other person and can live fulfilling, quality lives with the right diagnosis, treatment and support. 

One of the most difficult challenges that people living with epilepsy face is the stigma and ignorance associated with the condition. By educating ourselves and others and by raising awareness, we can provide epilepsy support, promote research, and help to eradicate the myths and misconceptions that still exist about epilepsy.