All About Misogyny

What is Misogyny?

Misogyny is a form of sexism that is characterised by dislike, prejudice, malice or contempt for women and girls. Misogyny manifests as negative behaviours, attitudes or institutional practices that discriminate against women and portray them as inferior to men. Misogyny can manifest in the way women are stereotyped, dismissed, mocked or reduced to their appearance or reproductive roles. Misogyny can also include verbal and physical abuse, including derogatory language, harassment or violence aimed at women.

Misogyny extends beyond hatred. It also perpetuates inequalities, as people with misogynistic beliefs push women into subordinate positions to ensure they have lower social status. This maintains unfair power imbalances in society and serves to maintain male dominance.

Misogyny has existed for thousands of years and is embedded in cultural practices, traditions and societal expectations that limit women’s rights and opportunities. It is a type of systemic discrimination and can be found in many areas of society, including employment, healthcare, policies, leadership roles, education and reproductive rights. While misogyny primarily targets women, it negatively impacts everyone by perpetuating inequality and limiting societal progress.

Violence against women has been declared a national emergency in England and Wales, with a report from the police, in conjunction with the Home Office, estimating that more than 2 million women have been victims of offences including stalking, harassment, sexual assault and domestic violence. This makes it more important than ever for individuals, communities and the UK government to address misogyny.

Characteristics of Misogynistic Behaviour

Misogynistic behaviour is characterised by actions, attitudes or beliefs that demean, discriminate against or show hostility toward women. These behaviours can be overt or subtle and may manifest in personal interactions, societal norms or institutional practices. Below are the key characteristics of misogynistic behaviour:

Disrespect and demeaning attitudes

• Belittling women – Treating women as less intelligent, competent or capable compared to men.
• Mocking or insulting women – Using sexist jokes, derogatory language or stereotypes to demean women.
• Interrupting or talking over women – Dismissing women’s opinions, interrupting them in conversations or talking over them, especially in professional settings.

Objectification of women

• Reducing women to their appearance – Valuing women primarily for their physical looks rather than their character, skills or intelligence.
• Sexual objectification – Treating women as objects of sexual gratification without regard for their agency or humanity.
• Double standards – Criticising women for behaviours (e.g., being assertive, ambitious or loud) that are celebrated in men.

Controlling or limiting women’s agency 

• Imposing gender roles – Expecting women to conform to traditional roles (e.g., caregiver, homemaker) and criticising those who deviate.
• Restricting freedom – Attempting to control women’s choices, such as how they dress, where they go or whom they associate with.
• Gatekeeping authority – Assuming leadership roles or decision-making power while excluding or undermining women.

Hostility toward women’s success

• Undermining achievements – Downplaying or dismissing women’s accomplishments, often attributing their success to external factors like luck or favouritism.
• Sabotaging opportunities – Blocking or hindering women’s access to education, career advancement or leadership positions.
• Resentment of feminism – Opposing efforts to promote gender equality, often labelling them as unnecessary or extreme.

Harassment and aggression

• Verbal harassment – Making inappropriate comments, catcalling or using threatening language.
• Physical harassment or violence – Engaging in behaviours such as unwanted physical contact, sexual assault or domestic violence.
• Intimidation – Using fear, threats or dominance to control or silence women.

Reinforcement of stereotypes 

• Assigning stereotypical traits – For example, assuming all women are emotional, weak or overly dependent.
• Blaming women for problems – Holding women accountable for issues like relationship conflicts or societal changes.
• Dehumanising portrayals – Depicting women in media or conversations as shallow, manipulative or overly materialistic.

Resentment of women’s independence

• Opposition to gender equality – Resisting changes that promote women’s empowerment, such as equal pay, reproductive rights or educational access.
• Discomfort with assertiveness – Feeling threatened by women who are confident, independent or authoritative.
• Punishing defiance – Criticising or ostracising women who challenge traditional gender norms.

Denial of misogyny 

• Gaslighting – Dismissing or trivialising women’s experiences with sexism or misogyny, often accusing them of overreacting.
• ‘Not all men’ defence – Redirecting conversations about systemic misogyny to avoid accountability or shift blame.
• Victim-blaming – Placing responsibility on women for the misogynistic behaviour they experience, such as blaming victims of harassment or assault.

Impact of Misogyny 

The impact of misogyny can be significant and it can affect individuals, communities and societies as a whole. While misogyny primarily targets women, its consequences can be felt across all genders and it can reinforce inequality, limit opportunities and inhibit societal progress.

Impact on Women and Girls

Misogyny can have significant negative effects on women and girls. Being a victim of misogyny can affect an individual’s mental and emotional health and can lead to anxiety, depression, low self-esteem and feelings of worthlessness. Additionally, misogyny can also affect women’s physical health and safety, as it can result in increased gender-based violence, including domestic abuse, sexual harassment and assault. 

Misogyny can also contribute to economic inequality and women may face workplace discrimination, unequal pay, limited career advancement and reduced access to leadership positions. Misogyny also enforces rigid gender roles and can contribute to women being confined to narrow societal expectations which limits their opportunities. Misogyny can also influence policies and attitudes that restrict women’s autonomy over their bodies and limit access to healthcare and reproductive services.

Impact on Men and Boys

Misogyny doesn’t just affect women and girls. Misogyny perpetuates harmful stereotypes about masculinity, pressuring men to conform to rigid ideals of dominance and emotional suppression. This can make it difficult for men to express their emotions, discourage them from seeking help and support if they need it and can contribute to poorer mental health. 

Men influenced by misogynistic attitudes may also have difficulty forming healthy, respectful relationships, particularly because misogynistic beliefs can discourage men from expressing vulnerability or empathy. With the latest statistics from the Samaritans showing that male suicide rates in the UK are more than 3 times higher than female suicide rates, it is important to be aware of how misogyny can affect men as well as women.

Societal Consequences of Misogyny

Misogyny is directly related to gender inequality, particularly because it encourages systemic discrimination and reinforces unequal access to education, healthcare and political representation. Societies that limit women’s participation in the workforce or leadership roles miss out on the potential for innovation and growth. When women are excluded or undervalued, their contributions to science, art, politics and other fields are reduced. 

Misogyny can also normalise violence and a misogynistic culture tolerates or excuses violence against women, creates unsafe environments and perpetuates cycles of harm. This can then feed into other forms of oppression, including racism, homophobia and classism, by upholding hierarchical structures.

What is Internalised Misogyny?

Internalised misogyny refers to when women and girls internalise, believe and adopt sexist beliefs, attitudes and stereotypes that perpetuate the idea of male superiority and female inferiority. It occurs when societal misogyny becomes ingrained in a woman’s mindset, often unconsciously, leading her to undervalue herself and other women.

Characteristics of internalised misogyny include:

Negative judgement of other women 

Internalised misogyny can cause women to criticise and look down on other women for their choices, behaviour or appearance. They may hold other women to unattainable or contradictory standards (e.g. labelling them as ‘too ambitious’ or ‘too emotional’). Some women also police or disparage other women because of their sexual behaviour, appearance or clothing choices (e.g. ‘slut-shaming’).

Devaluing female competence 

Some women believe that men are naturally better leaders, decision-makers or more competent in certain roles. They may trust men’s opinions, expertise or authority over women’s, even in contexts where women are equally or more qualified. For example, they may only trust the opinion of male doctors or believe that women shouldn’t be in high-power roles, such as Prime Minister or Company Director. 

Policing gender roles 

Internalised misogyny can reinforce traditional expectations of women, such as prioritising family or caregiving over careers or discouraging assertiveness. This can include criticising women who deviate from conventional roles, for example, by labelling them as ‘too masculine’, ‘selfish’ or as ‘bad mothers’. 

Competing with other women 

Viewing other women as rivals, especially for male attention, validation or professional opportunities is a consequence of internalised misogyny. This can include undermining or sabotaging other women’s success instead of supporting and uplifting them.

Self-sabotage 

Women may undervalue their own abilities, intelligence or worth, leading to imposter syndrome or hesitancy to pursue leadership roles. They may also accept unequal treatment or abuse and view it as ‘normal’ or ‘deserved’.

Seeking validation from men 

Seeking male approval as the primary source of self-worth, often at the expense of your own values or well-being is a key characteristic of internalised misogyny. This includes aligning with misogynistic perspectives to gain male acceptance, sometimes by distancing oneself from other women (e.g., saying ‘I’m not like other girls’).

Resisting feminism 

Rejecting feminism or gender equality movements, sometimes seeing them as unnecessary, overly aggressive or divisive is common in women with internalised misogyny. They may perceive women advocating for equality as being too extreme or being anti-men.

Internalised misogyny can occur because of social conditioning, for example, growing up in a patriarchal household or society where traditional gender roles are normalised and women are devalued. Girls may also internalise media portrayals, cultural norms and societal messaging that perpetuate stereotypes about women. Structural inequalities in education, the workplace and politics can also reinforce the idea that women are less capable or valuable. Women may also adopt misogynistic views to fit in with male-dominated groups or avoid criticism, exclusion or ridicule. This is often a survival mechanism in environments where male approval determines status or opportunity.

Is Misogyny a Hate Crime?

Misogyny is not currently classed as a hate crime in the UK. A hate crime is a crime that typically involves violence and is motivated by prejudice and discrimination, for example, because of a person’s ethnicity, religion or sexual orientation. In the Hate Crime Laws: Final Report, published in 2021, the Law Commission stated that making misogyny a hate crime would be damaging to female victims of violence and would not be an effective way to solve misogyny or violence and harassment of women and girls. 

In 2022, MPs rejected a proposed amendment to make misogyny a hate crime. However, the issue of whether misogyny should be a hate crime is still heavily debated, with many political parties in the UK, including the Labour Party, believing that making misogyny a hate crime would help to improve the safety of women. Some constabularies in the UK already recognise misogyny as a hate crime.

Online and Offline Misogyny 

Online misogyny is a type of online abuse that can include hostile, discriminatory or abusive behaviour toward women that occurs in digital spaces, such as social media platforms, forums, gaming communities and other online environments. Examples of online misogyny include:

• Cyberbullying and harassment – Such as sending abusive messages, threats or derogatory comments targeting women.
• Doxing: Including publicly revealing personal information (e.g., addresses or phone numbers) to intimidate or endanger women.
• Trolling – Posting inflammatory or misogynistic comments to provoke emotional responses or silence women online.
• Revenge porn – This includes sharing intimate photos or videos of women without their consent as a form of punishment, control or humiliation.
• Online sexual harassment – This could include sending unsolicited sexual content, making lewd comments or engaging in sexually explicit conversations without consent.
• Exclusion from digital spaces – This could include intentionally sidelining or silencing women in online communities, particularly in male-dominated areas like gaming or tech forums.
• Hate speech and gendered slurs – Using demeaning language or hate speech online to attack women’s identity, appearance or opinions.

Research by Amnesty International found that 20% of women and girls in the UK have experienced online abuse or harassment with nearly 50% of this abuse being misogynistic or sexist. 27% of these women also reported that online abuse threatened them with sexual or physical violence.

Online and offline misogyny are interconnected and online spaces often amplify offline misogyny by spreading harmful stereotypes, normalising abusive behaviour or coordinating harassment campaigns. Online spaces often amplify offline misogyny by spreading harmful stereotypes, normalising abusive behaviour or coordinating harassment campaigns. For example, doxing or revenge porn can lead to real-world safety concerns and social ostracisation.

Misogyny in Schools

Misogyny can occur in educational environments, including primary schools, high schools and colleges. It can happen in interactions among students, teachers and staff, as well as in school policies, curricula and institutional norms. Misogyny in schools negatively impacts the well-being, confidence and academic performance of female students while reinforcing harmful gender stereotypes.

A 2024 report from UNISON found that sexual harassment, the use of sexist language and gender stereotyping are significant issues in UK schools, with 34% of all teachers hearing sexist language being used in schools, 25% witnessing gender stereotyping and 25% of high school teachers reporting witnessing sexual harassment in their schools.

Misogyny in schools can take the form of verbal and social harassment. For example, students or staff could make derogatory or sexist comments about girls’ abilities, appearances or behaviours. Girls may also experience catcalling or sexual harassment from male peers. Female pupils may also experience gendered bullying, including bullying them based on gender stereotypes or shaming them for their clothing or social behaviour.

Some girls also experience unequal treatment in school compared to boys. This can include unfair expectations about their behaviour and abilities. For example, teachers may hold lower expectations for girls in subjects like maths, science or sports, assuming boys are naturally better at them. Conversely, girls may face pressure to excel in traditionally ‘feminine’ subjects, like literature or the arts. 

Girls also often have different behavioural expectations and are expected to behave better than male students. They may be punished more harshly than boys for the same behaviour, such as shouting out, talking in class or breaking uniform rules. Additionally, aggressive or disruptive behaviour from boys may be dismissed as ‘boys being boys’, while girls are held to higher behavioural standards.

A lack of female representation in school materials and the curriculum can also be problematic. Textbooks, history lessons and literature often centre on male achievements while sidelining or ignoring women’s contributions. There are also few female role models highlighted in STEM fields, reinforcing stereotypes about gendered career paths.

Misogyny in schools can have a negative impact on the pupils and the school culture in the following ways:

• Academic impact – Girls may have less confidence and be less likely to participate in or pursue male-dominated fields (e.g., STEM). This can result in lower academic performance in subjects such as maths and science.
• Mental health difficulties – Girls may develop mental health difficulties, such as anxiety, depression, low self-esteem and body image issues due to harassment, shaming or devaluation.
• Reinforced toxic masculinity – Boys who learn that dominance, aggression and entitlement are acceptable behaviours are more likely to perpetuate these views in adulthood.
• Limited emotional development – Internalising the belief that boys shouldn’t show their emotions or cry and that empathy, vulnerability and respect for women are unimportant can significantly affect a young boy’s emotional development, which can have consequences in adulthood. 
• Normalisation of sexism – Schools that fail to address misogyny perpetuate gender inequality and teach students that discriminatory behaviour is acceptable.
• Inequitable opportunities – Girls may feel unwelcome in leadership roles, competitive sports or extracurriculars traditionally dominated by boys or may not have access to these opportunities.  

Misogyny in schools can occur because of cultural norms. Schools often reflect broader societal attitudes and if these attitudes prioritise male dominance and devalue women, this could be reflected in schools. Additionally, students may bring sexist ideas from media, entertainment and social platforms into the school environment. The school may also have inadequate policies to address harassment, bullying and discrimination leaving misogyny unchallenged. Unconscious bias may also occur, whereby teachers and staff may unconsciously perpetuate stereotypes about gender roles and abilities.

To combat misogyny in schools, education and training are necessary. Schools should provide gender-sensitivity training for teachers, staff and administrators to recognise and address bias and harassment. They should also introduce curricula that promote gender equality, highlight women’s contributions and challenge traditional gender roles. Schools should also implement and enforce strict anti-harassment and anti-discrimination policies and establish clear reporting mechanisms and support systems for students who experience harassment or assault. 

Influencers and Internet Content

Online creators, social media platforms and digital media can perpetuate, normalise or challenge gender-based discrimination and misogyny. The internet provides a powerful medium for influencers to shape public opinion, culture and societal norms. While some use their platforms to promote gender equality, others reinforce misogynistic beliefs, either intentionally or inadvertently.

Male influencers, particularly those within toxic spaces, often promote misogyny by glorifying dominance, aggression and entitlement while demeaning women. They perpetuate harmful stereotypes, reduce women to their physical appearance and reinforce outdated gender roles that romanticise female submissiveness.

Similarly, many influencers create content that shames women for their choices, such as prioritising careers, delaying marriage or rejecting traditional expectations. This type of content often promotes phrases like ‘modern women are undatable’ or other narratives that blame women for societal issues. The objectification and dehumanisation of women in such content have far-reaching consequences, not only normalising harmful beliefs but also radicalising young men who consume this material.

On the other hand, female influencers and creators advocating for gender equality or feminist issues often face disproportionate harassment, trolling and even physical threats. This includes unsolicited sexual messages, body shaming or coordinated hate campaigns aimed at silencing their voices. 

Despite these challenges, many influencers work to counteract misogyny and use their platforms to promote gender equality, body positivity and healthy relationships. Male allies challenge toxic masculinity and encourage empathy and respect, while feminist creators educate their audiences on issues like wage gaps, consent and breaking down harmful stereotypes.

Social Media Misogyny

Misogyny on social media platforms, such as Facebook, Instagram, X (formerly Twitter), YouTube and TikTok can manifest in various forms, ranging from overt harassment, bullying and threats to subtle reinforcement of gender stereotypes. 

One of the most common forms of social media misogyny is gendered harassment. This includes abusive comments, trolling and targeted campaigns against women. Women, especially those in public roles, such as influencers, journalists and politicians, are disproportionately subjected to personal attacks, threats of violence and hate speech. These often focus on their gender, appearance or personal lives rather than their ideas or achievements. Sexual harassment is also rampant, with unsolicited explicit messages, non-consensual sharing of sexualised images and revenge porn being significant issues. Additionally, deepfakes (manipulated videos or images that are often sexualised) are increasingly used to humiliate and degrade women.

Victim-blaming and body shaming are also prominent on social media. Women are criticised for their choices, appearances or behaviour, often under the guise of opinion-sharing or humour. For example, dress policing (criticising women’s clothing choices) reinforces the idea that their value is tied to modesty or attractiveness. These forms of misogyny are often veiled as banter or constructive criticism, making them harder to challenge directly. 

Another form of social media misogyny lies in algorithmic bias. Social media platforms often prioritise engagement-driven content, which means sensational, polarising or controversial posts, which are often misogynistic, gain traction. Content creators who spread hate speech or gender-based harassment are sometimes rewarded with visibility and profits because their posts generate high levels of interaction, even if the interactions are negative. This structural issue amplifies misogynistic voices and makes it harder for women to escape the reach of harmful content.

The effects of social media misogyny are deeply harmful. Harassment can silence women and force them to leave social media platforms or avoid expressing opinions altogether. Women working in male-dominated spaces, such as gaming or politics, are particularly vulnerable and face significant barriers to success due to relentless abuse. The normalisation of misogyny on social media also reinforces harmful societal norms, perpetuating gender inequality and teaching younger generations that such behaviour is acceptable.

Social media misogyny doesn’t only harm women. It also fosters toxic masculinity and encourages men to adopt hostile attitudes and behaviours. Young men, exposed to misogynistic content on platforms like YouTube, TikTok or Reddit, may develop skewed views of gender roles and relationships. This radicalisation can have real-world consequences, ranging from interpersonal conflict to acts of violence against women.

Addressing social media misogyny requires a collective effort from platforms, governments and users. Platforms need to enforce stricter policies against harassment and hate speech. This includes faster content moderation, better reporting systems and clear penalties for violators. Governments can play a role by creating legislation to combat online harassment and hold platforms accountable for failing to protect users.

Tackling Misogyny 

Tackling misogyny requires a comprehensive approach that involves both individual and collective action to challenge discriminatory attitudes, behaviours and systems. On an individual level, self-awareness and reflecting on personal biases can help individuals be more aware of misogyny, from themselves and from others. 

Speaking up against harmful behaviours, whether it’s a sexist joke or overt harassment, is essential. Allowing women to have a voice, validating their experiences and promoting respect in personal and professional interactions are small but impactful ways to challenge misogyny. Additionally, individuals can support victims of misogyny by listening to their experiences, offering help in reporting abuse and connecting them with resources.

At the societal level, education plays a pivotal role in preventing misogyny. Schools should integrate lessons on gender equality, consent and healthy relationships into their curriculum, while public campaigns can raise awareness about the harmful effects of stereotypes and discrimination. Workplaces must adopt policies promoting diversity, equity and inclusion, with zero tolerance for harassment and gender bias. Training programs on unconscious bias and gender sensitivity can help create more inclusive environments. In media and entertainment, challenging harmful stereotypes and portraying women in diverse, empowering roles is essential. Platforms must also regulate and remove misogynistic content while promoting positive messaging.

Legal and policy reforms are necessary to strengthen protections for women. Governments should enforce laws against gender-based violence, harassment and discrimination, particularly in online spaces where misogyny thrives. Legislation targeting online harassment, revenge porn and cyberbullying is essential, as is holding platforms accountable for failing to address harmful content. Communities can also play a role by establishing safe spaces for women to share experiences, access resources and find mentorship opportunities. Grassroots movements and partnerships across sectors can drive collective action and cultural shifts.

Men have a critical role in combating misogyny, as they often hold societal power and influence. By being allies, calling out sexism among peers and supporting women-led initiatives, men can help dismantle harmful norms. Redefining masculinity to include traits like empathy and vulnerability can challenge toxic norms that perpetuate misogyny. Online spaces can also be used to challenge harmful narratives, amplify feminist voices and promote gender equality.

Cultural norms need to change to break stereotypes that tie specific roles or traits to gender. Normalising women in leadership positions, men as caregivers and diverse gender expressions can help create a more inclusive society. Celebrating women’s achievements and empowering them through access to education, healthcare and financial independence are key steps in addressing systemic barriers.